Uyghur People

Uyghur People

The Uyghur (Uyghur: ئۇيغۇر‎, ULY: Uyghur; simplified Chinese: 维吾尔; traditional Chinese: 維吾爾; pinyin: Wéiwú’ěr; [ʔʊjˈʁʊː]^[2]) are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People’s Republic of China. An estimated 80% of Xinjiang’s Uyghurs live in the southwestern portion of the region, the Tarim Basin.^[3]

Large diasporic communities of Uyghurs exist in the Central Asian countries ofKazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. Smaller communities are found in Mongolia,Afghanistan, Turkey, Russia and Taoyuan County of Hunan province in south-centralMainland China.^[4] The Uyghur diaspora includes major cities like Beijing, Shanghai,Sydney, Washington D.C., Munich, Tokyo, Toronto, and Istanbul.^{[citation needed]}

Uyghur ئۇيغۇر

Young Uyghur woman at the ruins of Melikawat near Khotan, c. 2005

Total population

11.257 million

Regions with significant populations

People’s Republic of China (Xinjiang) Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Turkey Turkmenistan Russia Tajikistan Afghanistan

Languages

Uyghur

Religion

Islam (mainly Sufi)[1]

Related ethnic groups

Turkic peoples

Identity :

(A Uyghur naan baker)

Throughout history, the term Uyghur has taken on an increasingly expansive definition. Initially a small coalition of Tiele tribes, it later denoted citizenship in the Uyghur Khaganate. Finally it was expanded to an ethnicity, whose ancestry derives from several distinct populations: including Turkic and Tocharian. The fluid definition of Uyghur and the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs are a source of confusion about what constitutes true Uyghurethnography and ethnogenesis.

The first use of Uyghur as a reference to a political nation occurred during the interim period between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates (AD 630-684).^[5] In modern usage,Uyghur refers to settled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of Kashgaria or Uyghurstan who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia. The Bolsheviks reintroduced the term Uyghur to replace the previously used “Turk” or Turki.^[6]

Linguist and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey has argued for inclusion of two other ethnic groups, the Yugur and the Salar, as subgroups of Uyghur (based on similar historical roots for the Yugur, and perceived linguistic similarities for the Salar). These groups are recognized as separate ethnic groups, though, by the Chinese government.^[7]

Etymology

The English transcription of the Uyghur ethnonym [ʔʊjˈʁʊː] is “Uyghur”. Typically, it is pronounced /ˈwiːɡər/ by English speakers. Currently, several alternate spellings appear in literature: Uighur, Uygur and Uigur.

The meaning of Uyghur is unclear. Several theories regarding its origin exist:

• “United Nine Tribes,” a replacement for Tokuz-Oguz the tribal alliance of which the Uyghurs were part.^[8]
• The Chinese referred to Uyghurs by the ethnonyms Hoy-Hu (Chinese: 回鵠; pinyin: Húihú), Üan-Ga (Chinese:?; Pinyin:?), and Chiu Hsing (Chinese: 九姓; pinyin: jiǔ xìng; literally “the nine clans”).^[9]
• Another suggested etymology is a composite of quick (Turkic:uigy) and man (Turkic:er/ir/ur) for Quick People.^[10]

The earliest record of an Uyghur tribe is from the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 AD). At that time the ethnonym Gaoche (Chinese: 高車; pinyin: Gāochē; literally “wheelwagon”) to the Tiele tribes. Later, the term Tiele (Chinese: 鐵勒; pinyin: Tiělè; Turkic: Tele) itself was used.^[11]

Some names (Dolans, Lopliks, etc. ) (刀郎人、罗布诺尔人（俗作罗布人）) refers to some division of Uyghurs, too.

History :

(An 8th century Uyghur Khagan)

Uyghur princesses. Bezeklik, Cave 9, ca. 8th/9th century AD, wall painting

Uyghur princes wearing robes and headgear. Bezeklik, Cave 9

Uyghur history can be divided into four distinct phases: Pre-Imperial (300 BC – AD 630), Imperial (AD 630–840), Idiqut (AD 840–1200), and Mongol (AD 1209–1600), with perhaps a fifth modern phase running from the death of the Silk Road in AD 1600 until the present. In brief, Uyghur history is the story of a small nomadic tribe from the Altai Mountains rising to challenge the Chinese Empire. After the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in AD 840, Uyghur resettled to the Tarim Basin, merging with the existing Tocharian population.^[12]Ultimately, the Uyghurs became civil servants administering the Mongol Empire.

Pre-Imperial (300 BC– AD 745)

The ancestors of the Uyghur tribe were Altaic pastoralists called Tiele, who lived in the valleys south of Lake Baikal and around the Yenisei River. The Tiele first appear in history AD 357 under the Chinese ethnonym Gaoche, referring to the ox-drawn carts with distinctive high wheels used for yurt transportation. Tiele tribal territories had previously been occupied by theDingling, an ancient Siberian people, some of whom had been absorbed into the Tiele. The Tiele practiced some minor agriculture and were highly developed metalsmiths due to the abundance of easily available iron ore in the Yenisei River.

The Tiele were subjugated by the Xiongnu in c 300 BC, who put them to work manufacturing weapons. For this reason they have often erroneously been attributed a Xiongnu origin. After the collapse of the Xiongnu empire they were passed as vassal metalsmiths to the Rouranand Hepthalite States.^[13]

A Tiele tribe of twelve clans, the Fufuluo (Chinese: 副伏罗; pinyin: Fùfúluó) , gathered enough power to create a state, the A-Fuzhiluo kingdom (AD 481-520), in Dzhungaria. The Fufulo are often listed as Uyghur ancestors in Chinese history, famously in the Suishu.^[14]

Traditional yurts near Lake Karakul
Image Location: Xinjiang (Silk Road region in western China), CHINA
Photographer/Camera: Photo taken by Rhett A. Butler using a Canon Digital Rebel XT

The forebears of the Tiele belonged to those Xiongnu descendants, having the largest divisions of tribes. They occupied the valleys, and were scattered across the vast region west of the Western Sea [Black Sea]

At the area north of the Duluo River (Tuul River), are the Pugu, Tongluo, Weihe (Orkhon Uyghur),^[15] Bayegu, Fuluo (Fufuluo), which were all called Sijin (Irkin). Other tribes such as Mengchen, Turuhe, Sijie (Esegel , (Pin. Asijie, Sijie 思結), Hun(Hunyu), Hu, Xue (Huxue) and so forth, also dwelled in this area. They had a 20,000 strong invincible army.

The names of these tribes differ, but all of them can be classified as Tiele. The Tiele do not have a master, but are subjected to the both Eastern and Western Tujue (Göktürks) respectively. They don’t have a permanent residence, and move with the changes of grass and water. Their main characteristics are, firstly, they possessed great ferocity, and yet showed tolerance; secondly, they were good riders and archers; and thirdly, they showed greed without restraint, for they often made their living by looting. The tribes toward the west were more cultivated, for they bred cattle and sheep, but fewer horses. Since the Tujue had established a state, they were recruited as the auxiliary of empire and conquered both east and westward, annexing all of the northern regional lands.

The customs of the Tiele and Tujue are not much different. However, a man of the Tiele lives in his wife’s home after marriage and will not return to his own home with his wife until the birth of a child. In addition, the Tiele also bury their dead under the ground.

—Suishu, 84

In AD 546 the Fufulo lead the Tiele tribes in a struggle against the Türk tribe in the power vacuum left by the breakup of the Rouran state. As a result of this defeat they were forced into servitude again. This incident marked the beginning of the historic Türk-Tiele animosity that plagued both Göktürk Khanates. (Note: at this time Tiele replaces Gaoche in Chinese history.) At some point during their subjugation, nine Tiele tribes formed a coalition called Tokuz-Oguzes Nine-Tribes which also included the Xueyantuo (Syr-Tardush),Basmyl, Oguz, Khazar , Alans, Kyrgyz, Tuva and Yakut under the leadership of the Xueyantuo.^[16]

In AD 600 Sui China allied with Erkin Tegin, Bey of the Uyghur tribe, against the Göktürk Empire, their common enemy. This alliance was the first historical mention of the Uyghur tribe, which then resided in the Tuul River Valley with a population of 10,000 yurts (~40,000 people).^[16] In AD 603 the alliance dissolved in the aftermath of Tardu Khan‘s defeat, but three tribes came under Uyghur control: Bugut, Tongra and Bayirqu.

In AD 611 the Uyghur led by the Xueyantuo defeated a Göktürk invasion; however, in AD 615 they were placed under Göktürk control again by Shipi Qaghan. In AD 627 the Uyghur, now led by Pusa Ilteber, participated in another Tokuz-Oguz revolt against the Göktürks, again spearheaded by the Xueyantuo tribe. In AD 630 the Göktürk Khanate was decisively defeated by the Emperor Tang Taizong. The Uyghur occupied second position after the Xueyantuo in the Tokuz-Oguz. However, in AD 646 when the Uyghur bey, Tumitu Ilteber (吐迷度) was granted the Chinese title Prefect (Chinese: 刺史; pinyin: cìshǐ) it established a legal precedent for Uyghur rule. He overthrew the Xueyantuo and established a short lived Uyghur state over the Mongolian steppe.

From AD 648-657 the Uyghur, under Pojuan Ilteber (婆闰), worked as mercenaries for the Chinese in their annexation of the Tarim Basin. In AD 683 the Uyghur bey Tuchiachi was defeated by Göktürks and the Uyghur tribe moved to the Selenga River Valley. From this base, they struggled against the Second Göktürk Empire.

By AD 688 the Ugyhur were controlled again by the Göktürks. After a series of revolts coordinated with their Chinese allies, the Uyghur emerged as the leaders of the Tokuz-Oguz and Tiele once again. In AD 744 taking advantage of the power shift caused by the Battle of Talas, the Uyghur, with their Basmyl and Qarluq allies, under the command of Qutlugh Bilge Köl, defeated Göktürks. The following year, they founded the Uyghur Khaganate at sacred Mount Ötüken. Control of Mt. Ötüken had been, since the Xiongnu, a symbol of authority over the Mongolian steppe.

Uyghur Khaganate (AD 744–840)

(Uyghur Khanate in geopolitical context c AD 820)

Properly called the On Uyghur Toquz-Oghuz Orkhon Khanate, the Uyghur Khaganate stretched from theCaspian Sea to Manchuria and lasted from AD 745 to 840.^[16] It was administered from the imperial capitalOrdu-Baliq, the first city built in Mongolia. During the imperial phase, the term Uyghur (Chinese: 维吾尔; pinyin: Wéiwú’ěr) denoted any citizen of the Uyghur Khaganate, as opposed to the Uyghur tribe.

Large numbers of Sogdian refugees came to Ordu-Baliq to escape the Islamic conquest of their homeland. They converted the Uyghur nobility from Buddhism to Manichaeism. Thus, the Uyghurs inherited the legacy of Sogdian Culture. Sogdians ran the civil administration of the empire. They were helpful in outflanking the Chinese diplomatic policies which had destabilized the Göktürk Khaganate. In AD 840, following a famine and civil war, the Uyhgur Khaganate was overrun by the Kirghiz, another Turkic people. As a result the majority of tribal groups formerly under Uyghur control migrated to what is now northwestern China, especially to the modern Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous region.

Several laws enforcing racial segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed by the Han chinese during the Tang dynasty. In 779 the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs in the capital to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese. Chinese disliked Uighurs because they practiced usury The magristrate who issued the orders may have wanted to protect “purity” in Chinese custom. ^[17]

AD 840 – 1600

Following the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, the Uyghur gave up Mongolia and established kingdoms in three areas: present dayGansu, Xinjiang, and the Chu River the West of Tian Shan (Tengri-Tag) Mountains.

Yugor, the easternmost of the three Uyghur states was the Ganzhou Kingdom (AD 870–1036), with its capital near present-dayZhangye in the Gansu province of China. There, the Uyghur converted from Manichaeism to Lamaism (Tibetan and Mongol Buddhism). Unlike other Turkic peoples further west, they did not later convert to Islam. Their descendants are now known as Yugurs (or Yogir,Yugor, and Sary Uyghurs, literally meaning “yellow Uyghurs”) and are distinct from modern Uyghurs. In AD 1028–1036, the Yugors were defeated in a bloody war and forcibly absorbed into the Tangut kingdom.

Karakhoja, the most central of the three Uyghur states, was the Karakhoja Kingdom (created during AD 856–866), also called the “Idiqut” (“Holy Wealth, Glory”) state, and was based on the cities of Turpan (winter capital), Beshbalik (summer capital), Kumul, andKucha. A Buddhist state, with state-sponsored Buddhism and Manicheism, it can be considered the center of Uyghur culture. The Idiquts (title of the Karakhoja rulers) ruled independently until 1209, when they submitted to the Mongols under Genghis Khan and, as vassal rulers, existed until 1335.

Kara-Khanids, or the Karakhans (Great Khans) Dynasty, was the westernmost of the three Uyghur states. The Karakhans (Karakhanliks) originated from Uyghur tribes settled in the Chu River Valley after 840 and ruled between 940–1212 in Turkistan and Maveraünnehir. They converted to Islam in 934 under the rule of Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan (920–956 AD) and, after taking power overQarluks in 940, built a federation with Muslim institutions. Together with the Samanids of Samarkand, they considered themselves the defenders of Islam against the Buddhist Uyghur Idiqut. The first capital of the Karahans was established in the city of Balasagun in the Chu River Valley and later was moved to Kashgar.

The reign of the Uyghur’s Karakhans is especially significant from the point of view of Turkic culture and art history. During this period mosques, schools, bridges, and caravansarais were constructed in the cities. Kashgar, Bukhara and Samarkand became centers of learning. During this period, Turkic literature developed. Among the most important works of the period is Kutadgu Bilig (English: “The Knowledge That Gives Happiness”), written by Yusuf Balasaghuni between the years 1060–1070, and Lughat-at-Turk(The Turkic dictionary) by Mahmud of Kashgar.

Both the Idiqut and the Kara-Khanid states eventually submitted to the Kara Khitais. After the rise of the Seljuk Turks in Iran, the Kara-Khanids became nominal vassals of the Seljuks as well. Later they would serve the dual-suzerainty of the Kara-Khitans to the north and the Seljuks to the south. Finally all three states became vassals to Genghis Khan in 1209.

Most Uyghur inhabitants of the Besh Balik and Turpan regions did not convert to Islam until the 15th century expansion of the YarkandKhanate, a Turko-Mongol successor state based in western Tarim. Before converting to Islam, Uyghurs were Tengriist, Manichaeans, Buddhists, or Nestorian Christians.

Chagatai Khanate

Main article: Chagatai Khanate

The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol ruling khanate that initially inherited part of the Mongol Empire that comprised the Uyghur’s land controlled by Chagatai Khan (alternative spellings Chagata, Chugta, Chagta, Djagatai, Jagatai), second son of the Mongol emperorGenghis Khan. Chagatai’s ulus, or hereditary territory, consisted of the part of the Mongol Empire which extended from the Ili River(today in eastern Kazakhstan) and Kashgaria (in the western Tarim Basin) to Transoxiana (modern Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan). After the death of his father, he inherited most of what are now the five Central Asian states and northern Iran, which he ruled until his death in 1242. These lands later came to be known as the Chagatai Khanate, a descendant empire of the Mongol Empire after the latter’s split. These territories would later become the Turco-Mongol states.

After the death of the Chagatayid ruler Qazan Khan in 1346, the Chagatai Khanate was divided into western (Transoxiana) and eastern (Moghulistan/Uyghuristan) halves, which was later known as “Kashgar and Uyghurstan,” according Balkh historian Makhmud ibn Vali (Sea of Mysteries, 1640).

Mogulistan

By the year of 1348 mogul kings changed their religion together with 160,000 subjects, soon after which the word mogul came to denote Islamic people of Turkic origin. This led to their demarcation from other mogul people who were not Islamic, and was the beginning of the foundation of the Uyghur-Turkic empire called Mogulistan.

Kashgar historian Muhammad Imin Sadr Kashgari recorded the country Uyghurstan in his book Traces of Invasion (Asar al-futuh) in 1780. Power in the western half devolved into the hands of several tribal leaders, most notably the Qara’unas. Khans appointed by the tribal rulers were mere puppets. In the east, Tughlugh Timur (1347–1363), an obscure Chaghataite adventurer, gained ascendancy over the nomadic Mongols, and converted to Islam. In 1360, and again in 1361, he invaded the western half in the hope that he could reunify the khanate. At their greatest extent, the Chaghataite domains extended from the Irtysh River in Siberia down to Ghazni in Afghanistan, and from Transoxiana to the Tarim Basin.

Tughlugh Timur was unable to completely subjugate the tribal rulers. After his death in 1363, the Moghuls left Transoxiana, and the Qara’unas’ leader Amir Husayn took control of Transoxiana. Tīmur-e Lang (Timur the Lame), or Tamerlane, a Muslim native of Transoxania who claimed descent from Genghis Khan, desired control of the khanate for himself and opposed Amir Husayn. He took Samarkand in 1366, and was recognized as emir in 1370, although he continued to officially act in the name of the Chagatai khans. For over three decades, Timur used the Chagatai lands as the base for extensive conquests, conquering the rulers of Herat in Afghanistan,Shiraz in Persia, Baghdad in Iraq, Delhi in India, and Damascus in Syria. After defeating the Ottoman Turks at Angora, Timur died in 1405 while marching on Ming Dynasty China. The Timurid Dynasty continued under his son, Shah Rukh, who ruled from Herat until his death in 1447.

By 1369, the western half (Transoxonia and further west) of the Chagatai Khanate had been conquered by Tamerlane in his attempt to reconstruct the Mongol Empire. The eastern half, mostly under what is now Xinjiang, remained under Chagatai princes that were at times allied or at war with Timurid princes. Until the 17th century, all the remaining Chagatay domains fell under the theocratic regime of Uyghur Apak Khoja and his descendant, the Khojijans, who ruled East Turkestan.

Both Transoxonia and the Tarim Basin of East Turkestan became known as Moghulistan or Mughalistan, named after the ruling class of Chagatay and Timurid states which descended from the “Moghol” tribe of Doghlat, but was completely Islamicized and Turkified in language. It was the same Moghol Timurid ruling class that established the Timurid rule on the Indian Subcontinent known as theMughal Empire.

Under the Chagatay Khanate’s rule in East Turkestan/Uyghurstan, the culture of the Karakhanids(Uyghurs) became dominant of the largely Muslim state, that the Buddhist populations of the former Karakhoja(Uyghurs) Idikut-ate largely converted into the Muslim faith, and that all Chagatai-speaking Muslims, regardless whether they lived in Turpan or Kashgar, became known by their occupations asMoghols (ruling class), Sarts (merchants and townspeople) and Taranchis (farmers). This triple division of classes among the same Muslim Turkic folk also existed in Transoxonia, regardless whether they were under Timurid or Chagatay, the sense of ethnic kinship between the modern Uyghur and Uzbek peoples remain strong until today.

It is widely believed^[who?] that the modern Uyghur nation acquired its current demographic composition and its current cultural identity during the East Turkestani Chagatay period.^{[citation needed]} The Chagatay period in East Turkestan was marked by instability and internecine warfare kingdoms, with Kashgar, Yarkant and Qomul as major centers. Some Chagatay princes allied with the Timurids and Uzbeks of Transoxonia, and some sought help from the Buddhist Kalmyks. The Chagatay prince Mirza Haidar Kurgan escaped his war-torn homeland Kashgar in the early 16th century to Timurid Tashkent, only to be evicted by the invading Shaybanids. Escaping to the mercy of his Mughal Timurid cousins, which was then rulers of Delhi, India, he gained his final post as governor of Kashmir and wrote the famous Tarikh-i-Rashidi, widely acclaimed as the most comprehensive work on the Uyghur civilization during the East Turkestani Chagatay reign.^[18]

The Khojijans were originally the Aq Tagh tariqa of the Naqshbandi order, which originated in Timurid Transoxonia. Struggles between two prominent Naqshbandi tariqas the Aq Taghlik and the Kara Taghlik engulfed the entire East Turkestani Chagatay domain in late 17th century, which Apaq Khoja finally triumphant both as a national religious and political leader. The last ruling Chagatay princess married one of the ruling Khojijan princes (descendants of Apaq) and became known as Khanum Pasha. She ruled with brutality after the death of her husband, and singlehandedly slaughtered many of her Khojijan and Chagatayid rivals. She was known to have boiled alive the last Chagatayid princess that could have continued the dynasty. The Khojijan Dynasty fell into chaos despite the brutality of Khanum Pasha.

During the Ming Turpan Border Wars, the Chinese Ming Dynasty defeated invasions by the Uyghur Kingdom of Turpan.

The invading of the Manchu Qing Dynasty over the Jungars brought Manchu military governorship to the Ili Valley north of Tarim basin. Khojijan princes keep putting up struggle against Qing, until Qing was overturned by the Kuomintang.

Qing dynasty

The Manchus, semi-nomads from present-day northeast China, vastly expanded the Qing empire, which they founded in 1644, to include East Turkistan.^[19] Qing dynasty invaded Dzungaria in 1759 and dominated it until 1864. The territory was renamed Xinjiang, soon after the Qing invasion of the Dzungars. “Historians estimate that a million people were slaughtered, and the land so devastated that it took a generation for it to recover.”^[20] During this period, the Uyghurs revolted 42 times against Qing Dynasty rulers.^{[citation needed]} In the revolt of 1864, the Uyghurs were successful in expelling the Qing Dynasty officials from East Turkistan, and founded an independent Kashgaria kingdom, called Yettishar (English: “country of seven cities”). Under the leadership of Yakub Beg, it included Kashgar, Yarkand, Hotan, Aksu, Kucha, Korla and Turpan. The kingdom was recognized by the Ottoman Empire (1873),Tsarist Russia (1872), and Great Britain (1874), which established a mission in the capital, Kashgar.

Uyghur Muslim forces under Yaqub Beg declared a Jihad against Chinese Muslims under T’o Ming during the Dungan revolt. The Uyghurs thought that the Chinese Muslims were Shafi`i, and since the Uyghurs were Hanafi that they should wage war against them. Yaqub Beg enlisted non Muslim Han Chinese militia under Hsu Hsuehkung in order to fight against the Chinese Muslims. T’o Ming’s forces were defeated by Yaqub, who planned to conquer Dzungharia. Yaqub intended to seize all Dungan territory.^[21][22] At Kuldjasome Taranchi Turkic Muslims massacred Chinese Muslims, forcing them to flee into Ili.^[23]

Large Qing (Manchu) Dynasty forces under the General Zuo Zongtang attacked Kashgaria in 1876. Fearing Tsarist expansion into East Turkestan, Great Britain supported the Qing invasion forces through loans by British banks (mostly through Boston Bank, located inHong Kong). After this invasion, East Turkestan was renamed “Xinjiang” or “Sinkiang”, which means “New Dominion” or “New Territory”, by the Qing empire on November 18, 1884.

Meanwhile, the “Great Game” between Russia and Britain was underway in Central Asia, with former ethnic cultures from Afghanistan through Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to Uyghurstan, being divided. Artificial lines have been drawn between Shiite Persian speakers and Sunni Chagatay Turkic speakers within the same Uzbek cultural sphere and gave rise to the modern Tajik and Uzbek nationalities. Whereas the rather similar Sart-Taranchi populations around Kashgar(Xinjiang) and Andijan(Uzbekistan) divided into the different ethnicities of Uyghur and Uzbeks, Turpan, Qumul, Korla, Kashgar, Yarkant, Yengihissar, Khotan, Gulja through the Tarim Basin and the edges of Sinkiang, were recognized as Uyghur.

Throughout the Qing Dynasty, the sedentary Uyghur inhabitants of the oases around the Tarim speaking Qarluq/Old Uyghur-Chagataydialects, were largely known as Taranchi, Sart, ruled by their Moghul rulers of Khojijan. Other parts of the Islamic World still knew this area as Moghulistan or as the eastern part of Turkestan.

Before being renamed ‘Xinjiang’ by Qing, this eastern part of Turkestan was more often known as Hui Jiang in Manchu, or “The Islamic territory”.

The Europeans noted that Turki muslims (Uyghur) were poor, which would lead them to prostitute their daughters, while such a thing would never happen among Tungan muslims (Chinese Muslims), which was why Turki prostitutes were common around the country.^[24]

Republican era

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challengedand removed. (July 2009)

The Uyghur identified themselves to each other by their oasis, as ‘Keriyanese’, ‘Khotanese’, or ‘Kashgari’. The Soviets met with the Uyghur in 1921 during a meeting of Turkic leaders in Tashkent. This meeting established the Revolutionary Uyghur Union (Inqilawi Uyghur Itipaqi), a communist nationalist organization that opened underground sections in principal cities of Kashgaria and was active until 1926, when the Soviets recognized the post Qing Sinkiang Government and concluded trade agreements with it.

By 1920, Uyghur nationalism had already become a grave challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin (杨增新) controlling Sinkiang.Turpan poet Abdulhaliq, having spent his early years in Semey (Semipalatinsk) and the Jadid intellectual centres in Uzbekistan, returned to Sinkiang with a penname that he later styled as a surname: “Uyghur”. He wrote the famous nationalist poem Oyghan, which opened with the line “Ey pekir Uyghur, oyghan!” (Hey poor Uyghur, wake up!). He was later martyred by the Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai in Turpan in March, 1933 for inciting Uyghur nationalist sentiments through his works.

There were several Uighur factions during Yang’s rule in Xinjiang, which did not intermarry and were fierce rivals. The Agtachlik faction always cut off the top of a melon and said bismillah before slicing it, and the less pious Qarataghliks (black mountain Uighurs) would slice up the melon without invoking the name of God. The Qarataghlik Uighurs were content to live under Chinese rule, while the Agtachlik Uighurs were hostile to Chinese rule.^[25]

Uyghur independence activists staged several uprisings against post Qing and Sheng-Kuomintang rule. Twice, in 1933 and 1944, the Uyghurs successfully regained their independence(backed by the Soviet Joseph Stalin): the First East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived attempt at independence of land around Kashghar, and it was destroyed by Chinese Muslim army under General Ma Zhancang andMa Fuyuan at the Battle of Kashgar (1934). The Uyghurs had revolted with the Kirghiz who were another Turkic people. the Kirghiz were angry at the Chinese Muslims for crushing their Kirghiz Rebellion so they and the Uyghurs in Kashgar targeted Chinese Muslims for killing along with Han Chinese during their revolt.

The Second East Turkistan Republic existed from 1944 to 1949 in what is now Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. The Ili Rebellion was fought by the Kuomintang against the Second East Turkestan Republic, the Soviet Union, and the Mongolian People’s Republic.

The pro independence Uighurs were divided between pro Turkey and pro Soviet factions. Isa Yusuf Alpteklin witnessed rioting and fighting between the two.

1949–present

(Map of Xinjiang, the prefectures with Uyghur majority are in blue)

In 1949, after the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang) lost the civil war in China,Second East Turkestan Republic‘s rulers did not agree to form a confederate relation within Mao‘s People’s Republic of China, however, a plane crash killed many of the East Turkestan Republic’s delegation. The surviving leader, Saifuddin Azizi, joined theChinese Communist Party and professed loyalty to the PRC.^[26] Soon afterward, General Wang Zhen quickly marched on East Turkestan through the deserts, suppressing anti-invasion uprisings. Mao turned the Second East Turkistan Republic into the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, and appointed Azizi as the region’s first Communist Party governor. Many Republican loyalists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries.

The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, where they are the largest ethnic group and Uyghurs are mostly concentrated in the southwestern Xinjiang.^[27](see map, right)

tUyghur nationalism

The Uyghur identity remains fragmented, as some support a Pan-Islamic vision, exemplified in the East Turkestan Islamic Movement; some support a Pan-Turkic vision, as in the East Turkestan Liberation Organization; and some would like a “Uyghurstan” state, as in the East Turkestan independence movement. As a result, “No Uyghur or East Turkestan group speaks for all Uyghurs, although it might claim to”, and Uyghurs in each of these camps have committed violence against other Uyghurs who they think are too assimilated to Chinese or Russian society or not religious enough.^[28] Mindful not to take sides, Uyghur leaders like Rebiya Kadeer mainly try to garner international support for the “rights and interests of the Uyghurs”, including the right to demonstrate, although the Chinese government has accused her of orchestrating the deadly July 2009 Ürümqi riots.^[29]

Recently Rebiya Kadeer was banned from entering Taiwan for three years. She had been invited by a Taiwanese arts organization to attend screenings of The 10 Conditions of Love, a documentary about her life story. Taiwan’s Kuomintang (KMT) government claimed its rejection of Kadeer was “based on security needs.” Kadeer said “it is unfortunate to see that KMT policy is increasingly mirroring Chinese policy on human rights. Under the Ma administration, all Chinese officials can freely travel to Taiwan. However, His Holiness the Dalai Lama was snubbed and I am prohibited from going there to attend a film screening.” ^[30]

Uyghurs of Taoyuan, Hunan

Around 5,000 Uyghurs live around Taoyuan County and other parts of Changde in Hunan province.^{[31][32][33][34]} They are descended from a Uyghur leader Hala Bashi, from Turpan, who the Ming Emperor sent to Hunan in the 14th century, (mid 1300s) to crush the Miao rebels during the Miao Rebellions (Ming Dynasty).^[35][36] Along with him came Uyghur soldiers from which the Hunan Uyghurs also descend from. During the 1982 census 4,000 Uyghurs were recorded in Hunan.^[37] They have genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present day. Genealogy keeping is a Han chinese custom which the Hunan Uyghurs adopted. These Uyghurs were given the surname Jian by the Emperor. A prominent Hunan Uyghur was Jian Bozan (1898-1968), they receive Chinese eudcation.^[38] He was a member of the Chinese Communist Party.^[39] There is some confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not. Some say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not practice Islam anymore, and only that their genealogies indicate their Uyghur ancestry.^[40]Chinese news sources report that they are Muslim.^[41]

The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming Emperor to crush Miao rebellions and were given titles by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur have the surname Sai. Hui and Uyghur have intermarried in the Hunan area, and the Hui were also used by the Ming Emperor to crush revolts.^[42] The Hui are descendants of Arabs and Han chinese who intermarried, and they share the Islamic religion withe the Uyghur in Hunan.^[43] It is reported that they now number around 10,000 people. The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious, and eat pork.^[44] Older Uygurs disapprove of this, especially elders at the mosques in Changde, and they seek to draw them back to Islamic customs.^[45]

In addition to eating pork, the Uygurs of Changde Hunan practice other Han chinese customs, like ancestor worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the Hunan Uyghurs out of curiousity or interest.^[46] Also, the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the Uyghur language, instead, they speak Chinese as their native language, and Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.^[47]

Culture :

(An Uyghur mosque in Khotan.)

The relics of the Uyghur culture constitute major collections in the museums of Berlin,London, Paris, Tokyo, St. Petersburg, and New Delhi. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scientific and archaeological expeditions to the region of Uyghurstan’s Silk Roaddiscovered numerous cave temples, monastery ruins, and wall paintings, as well as valuable miniatures, books, and documents. Explorers from Europe, America, and Japan were amazed by the art treasures found there, and soon their reports caught the attention of an interested public around the world. The manuscripts and documents discovered in Xinjiang(Uyghurstan/Eastern Turkestan) reveal the very high degree of civilization attained by the Uyghurs. This Uyghur power, prestige, and civilization, which dominated Central Asia for over a thousand years, went into a steep decline after the Manchu invasion of their homeland. Throughout the history of Central Asia, they left a lasting imprint on both the culture and tradition of the people of central Asia.

Chinese ambassador Wang Yande (939–1006), to the Karakhoja Uyghur Kingdom in AD 981–984: “I was impressed with the extensive civilization I have found in the Uyghur Kingdom. The beauty of the temples, monasteries, wall paintings, statues, towers, gardens, housings and the palaces built throughout the kingdom cannot be described. The Uyghurs skilfully make things of silver and gold, vases and pitchers.”^{[citation needed]}

Literature

(Mähmut Qäşqäri)

Most of the early Uyghur literary works were translations of Buddhist and Manichean religious texts, but there were also narrative, poetic, and epic works.^{[citation needed]} Some of these have been translated into German, English, Russian, and Turkish. After the general population’s conversion to Islam, world-renowned Uyghur scholars emerged and Uyghur literature flourished. Among hundreds of important works surviving from that era are Qutatqu Bilik (Wisdom Of Royal Glory) by Yüsüp Has Hajip (1069–70), Mähmut Qäşqäri‘s Divan-i Lugat-it Türk- A Dictionary of Turkic Dialects(1072), and Ähmät Yüknäki’s Atabetul Hakayik. Perhaps the most famous and well loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature are Abdurehim Otkur‘s Iz, Oyghanghan Zimin, Zordun Sabir‘s Anayurt and Ziya Samedi‘s (former minister of culture in Sinkiang Government in 50′s) novels Mayimkhan and Mystery of the years.^{[citation needed]} Some Uyghur books have been translated into various Western languages.^{[citation needed]}

Ferdinand de Saussure: “Those who preserved the language and written culture of Central Asia were the Uyghurs.”^{[citation needed]}

Medicine

The Uyghurs had an extensive knowledge of medicine and medical practice. Chinese Song Dynasty (906–960) sources indicate that an Uyghur physician named Nanto traveled to China and brought with him many kinds of medicine unknown to the Chinese. There were 103 different herbs used in Uyghur medicine recorded in a medical compendium by Li Shizhen (1518–1593), a Chinese medical authority. Tatar scholar, professor Reşit Rahmeti Arat in Zur Heilkunde der Uighuren (Medical Practices of the Uyghurs) published in 1930 and 1932, in Berlin, discussed Uyghur medicine. Relying on a sketch of a man with an explanation of acupuncture, he and some Western scholars suspect that acupuncture was not a Chinese, but an Uyghur discovery.^[48]

Today, traditional Uyghur medicine can still be found at street stands. Similar to other traditional medicine, diagnosis is usually made through checking the pulse, symptoms, and disease history, and then the pharmacist pounds up different dried herbs, making personalized medicines according to the prescription. Modern Uyghur medical hospitals adopted the Western medical science and medicine and adopted Western pharmaceutical technology to discover new and produce traditional medicines.

Art

(Wall painting at Bezeklik caves in Flaming Mountains, Turpan Depression.)

There are 77 rock-cut caves at the site. Most have rectangular spaces with rounded archceilings often divided into four sections, each with a mural of Buddha. The effect is of entire ceiling covers with hundreds of Buddha murals. Some ceilings are painted with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, including Indians, Persians and Europeans. The quality of the murals vary with some being artistically naive while others are masterpieces of religious art.^[49]

The cave paintings at Bezeklik and Kizil. Textile design.

Music

Dolan Rawabi(Rawab of Dolan, a local musical instrument)

Muqam is the classical musical style. The 12 Muqams are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam system developed among the Uyghur in northwest China and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years from the Arabic maqamat modal system that has led to many musical genres among peoples of Eurasia and North Africa. Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after the oasis towns of Xinjiang (Eastern Turkestan), such asDolan, Ili, Kumul and Turpan. The most fully developed at this point is the Western Tarimregion’s 12 muqams, which are now a large canon of music and songs recorded from the traditional performers Turdi Akhun and Omar Akhun among others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic system. Although the folk performers probably improvised their songs as in Turkish taksim performances, the present institutional canon is performed as fixed compositions by ensembles.

Each of the 12 muqams (named Rak, Čäbbiyat, Segah, Čahargah, Pänjigah, Özhal, Äjäm,Uššaq, Bayat, Nava, Mušavräk, and Iraq), consists of a main section that begins with a long free rhythm introduction, followed by pieces with characteristic rhythmic patterns that gradually increase in speed. These pieces are arranged in the same sequence in each muqam, although not all muqams have the same pieces. These parts are known as täzä, nuskha, small säliqä, jula, sänäm, large säliqä, päshru, and täkit. Some have an associated instrumental piece known as a märghul(“decoration”) following it. Although each named piece has its characteristic rhythmic pattern, the melodies differ, so each piece is generally known by the muqam and the piece: for example, “the Rak nuskha” or “the Segah jula”.

After the main section, there are two other sections, originally associated with other musical traditions, but included in muqams by performers such as Turdi Akhun and therefore included in the present 12 muqam tradition. The Dastan^[50] section includes songs from several of the romantic dastan narratives found widely in Central and South Asia and the Middle East. Each dastan song is followed by an instrumental märghul. The Mäshräp section consists of more lively dance songs that were originally connected with the performances of sama by dervish musicians of Turkistan.

The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity.^[51]

Amannisa Khan, sometimes called Amanni Shahan, (1526–1560) is credited with collecting and thereby preserving the Twelve Muqam.^[52]

• London Uyghur Ensemble

Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own musical instruments; they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments and in every Uyghur home there used to be an instrument called a “dutar“.

Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is the largest of China’s provinces and autonomous regions and has abundant natural resources. Surrounded and divided by mountains, Xinjiang’s north is completely different from its south.

The 59.5 million Uygurs in Xinjiang are known for their skill in singing and dancing. On festive days and at gatherings of friends and relatives, Uygurs love to sing and dance. Their lively dances demonstrate diligence, bravery, openness and optimism.

Uygur folk dances are distinguished by head and wrist movements. Their clever coordination is enhanced by the typical posture of tilted head, thrust chest and erect waist. The dances,Sanam in particular, express the Uygurs’ feelings and character.

A slight shivering movement is characteristic of Uygur folk dances. The rhythmic and continuous shivering of the knees and the momentary shiver when a movement is changed lend grace and continuity.

The fast turns of Uygur folk dances emphasize speed and are followed by an abrupt stop, like a soaring eagle that stops suddenly. The various dances all have their own turns. A turning contest brings the dance to its climax. There are special tempi for various Uygur folk dances, but syncopation and dotted rhythms are prominent features in many.

Following are introductions to Sanam, Dolan, Sama, Xadiyana and Nazirkom folk dances, which enjoy wide popularity among the Uygurs.

Dolan Dance :

Unrestrained and vigorous, Dolan is an ancient Uygur folk dance popular in Maikeiti, Bachu, Shache, and Awati along the Yarkant River.

Dolan is an ancient name for Uygurs living in several places in the Tarim Basin. With bravery, diligence, wisdom and strength, they created an oasis on the edge of the Taklimakan Desert. Many people living in Maikeiti, Bachu and Awati still call themselves Dolan people and the place they live, Dolan.

Dolan is said to describe hunting. “Call to the hunt” is followed by “searching for the prey with torches,” “brave fight with the animal,” “dauntless pursuit,” “encirclement” and “joy over the triumph.” From the vigorous mime for shooting arrows we can visualize the hard life Dolan people led in the past. However, some people say this dance depicts a battle.Dolan has preserved most of its original characteristics.

The best performance of Dolan is found in Red Flag Township in Maikeiti, where men and women, young and old, love to dance it. A couple dance, Dolan has four sets of dance movements, ending with a turning competition.

Nazirkom dance

Source: Global Times [16:18 July 20 2009]

A Nazirkom originated in the well-known Turpan Basin and is popular in Shanshan Toksun and Hami.

According to one source, Nazir is a poor man’s name, while kom is the sound of drums. Long, long ago Nazir created many dances satirizing the unscrupulousness of the reactionary rulers as a way of showing his opposition to oppression by the ruling class. His dances were warmly received by the people. As time went on, the working people gradually developed them into a kind of folk dance and called it Nazirkom.

Nazirkom is usually performed by men in couples in an improvisational way. The performers do not sing but dance to the singing of the band and other people. When the performance begins, the dancers display their own skills separately. As the tempo quickens, a contest of skills starts. First, two people display customary feats, one mimicking the other’s movements and both dancing in fine teamwork. Suddenly one dancer presents a new and difficult movement to challenge his partner who not only follows but creates something else new. The spectators cheer on the performers to the rhythmic of the drums. Sometimes a silk flower or handkerchief is placed on the ground for the performers to pick up. One performer will challenge the other with particularly difficult manoeuvres to pick it up. The performance reaches its climax and conclusion at this point amid people’s cheers.

A walking step is most often used. Bending the knees slightly and relaxing the upper body, the performer walks about, changing postures or mimicking different characters. Light shoulder shrugs enhance the intimacy and humour of the dance.

With exaggeration and wit Nazirkom imitates movements from daily life, such as rolling thread, stitching a shoe sole, and making dough and noodles. It also uses a great variety of squats, leaps, jumps and other movements.

The songs for accompaniment have special verses that in the past described the love of young people or exposed greedy and tyrannical landlords and local despots.

Sanam dance

Source: Global Times [16:18 July 20 2009]

Sanam is the most popular folk dance among all the Uygurs in Xinjiang. It mainly originated in southern Xinjiang with its advanced agriculture and culture and a dense population of Uygurs. In forming the Uygur classic music called the Twelve Mukam, Sanam was included, thus it must be even older than the centuries-old Mukam. At the same time Sanam was popularized among the Uygurs as an independent dance.

At weddings, on festive occasions and at parties people invariably dance Sanam. For instance, at a song and dance party the whole village, old and young, men and women, relatives and friends, joins in the dance. One family plays host for each party. The dancing and singing are kept going with games of passing flowers, wine cups or belts. Sometimes a performance of Mukam songs and riddles or a recitation of poem is included.

On the first day of a wedding celebration friends on both sides invite the bridegroom and their relatives to their homes. In the evening the bridegroom and his friends go to the bride’s home to welcome the bride. A band plays as they go singing and dancing on their way. Throughout the day Sanam is the main form of singing and dancing.

In a performance of Sanam people sit in a circle with a band in one corner. As people clap their hands and sing in unison, the dancers dance. Besides singing the familiar old songs, they improvise new verses to old melodies to describe the festive scene and their joyous feelings.

The dancers also improvise, following the tempo of the music. One, two, three or five people dance together. The tempo quickens gradually until music and dance reach their climax and people shout, “Kai-na! (Come on!)” or “Balikaleila! (Wonderful!)” The shouting, drumming and music create great excitement.

Since 1949 and release from feudal ethics Uygur women have joined in the mass Sanamdance.

The movements are graceful, elegant and varied, determined by the music, tempo and occasion. The primary feature is coordination of different parts of the body — head, shoulders, wrists, waist and legs. For instance, head movements include turning the neck and shaking. The wrists revolve, cross and perform wavelike movements. Waist movements include lifting the chest, turning sideways, bending backward. Leg movements are more varied, including pointing the toe, kicking backward, stamping and turning. Most movements in Sanam come from life, such as “holding a hat,” “rolling up sleeves,” “picking up one’s skirt,” “looking into the distance with one hand on the forehead” and “putting one hand on the chest.” Owing to limited space for performance,Sanam has developed the coordination of different parts of the body and various postures to express the dancers’ joyful feelings.

The steps feature controlled but not stiff knees and flexible, lignt movements of the legs, closely coordinated with the drumbeat. The most common sequence of steps is three steps forward and one backward kick, the legs steady but shivering slightly. The fourth step, when the performer slides his foot on the ground and kicks backward, is neat and lively.

One often sees old men and necks and shaking their heads when happy. Such movements have been assimilated into Sanam.

Differences in dialect, natural surroundings, historical background and customs have produced varied styles of Sanam in different places. In some areas the Sanam performed in cities and towns is different from that performed in rural areas. Sanam performed in Kashi is typical of southern Xinjiang and is noted and the refined movements of the different parts of the body. The gestures are extremely varied. Sanam performed in lli is representative of the Sanam in northern Xinjiang. With elements drawn from the dances of other ethnic minorities, the Ili Sanam is known for its boldness, abrupt stops and comic touches. The Sanam in Hami is typical of eastern Xinjiang. Its slow tempo has an unusual 5/8 beat. The steps are sedate, and the dancer usually simply holds his half-clenched hands over his head. Since the dance takes on different characteristics in different places, people usually refer to it as Kashi Sanam, Ili Sanam, etc.

The accompaniment has evolved from the folk music in different places. It is melodious and expressive, with striking rhythm. The instruments usually include tambur, rawap, dutar (all plucked stringed instruments), satar, a bowed stringed instrument, and dup(tambourines). The tambourines control the speed. The sound of the instruments spreads far and wide.

Huteng dance

Source: Global Times [16:18 July 20 2009]

Huteng Dance, or Heaping Dance of the Northern Nomads in English was a male solo dance popular among the northwestern ethnic minority groups in the ancient State.

Traditional dancing

Source: Xinhua [16:10 July 20 2009]

A Uygur woman dances during a local ceremony of apricot blossoms in Yining county, northwest China’s Xijiang Uygur autonomous region April 6, 2009.

Uygur dancers perform during a local ceremony of apricot blossoms in Yining county, northwest China’s Xijiang Uygur autonomous region April 6, 2009.

Xinjiang dance

Source: CRI [16:10 July 20 2009]

Xinjiang is known as a land that overflows with beautiful singing and dancing. Now, after years of development and evolution, Xinjiang dance has made the leap from a folk art into a formal stage art. But despite this progress, what remains unchangeable in the spectacle is the richness of Xinjiang’s culture.

Watching a performance of Xinjiang dancing is to get a virtual experience of Xinjiang; the passion of the people, the diversity of its ethnic groups, the richness of its natural resources – and the taste and aroma of its delicious food. Xinjiang dance is famous for its energy and elegance; the steps are buoyant yet skilful; dancers emphasize the movement of every part of the body, particularly the wrists, and there is a great variety of postures.

In the northern part of the region, dance is represented by Sainaimu, a type of dance in Yili area. In this style dancers’ movement and postures are bold and exhilarating – but can suddenly change tone, through a slight pause or a delicate humorous action. In the east, the variant is known as Hami Sainaimu. This style has a much slower rhythm with flowing movements and less emphasis on wrist action.

Xinjiang dance is a precious national legacy of Chinese people. Not only will it be passed down from generation to generation, it will also be brought to the international stage.